This essay looks at some of the history and use of Papvarum somniferum (opium poppy, or literally ‘sleep-inducing’ poppy) and other medicinal members of the Papaveraceous family which has grown to forty genera and around 800 species (Mingli et al., 2008). These include Papvara rhoeas (common poppy, corn poppy, field poppy), Eschscholzia californica (Californian poppy) and Corydalis ambigua (Yan Hu Suo) and other Corydalis’s (Wearn, n.d.) (Plants for our Future, n.d.).
Papvarum somniferum is the most powerful narcotic of the family whose derivatives include morphine, oxycodone, codeine, and heroin. Parts used are the seed capsules and the flowers. Opium is extracted from the unripe seed head by scarifying it to release an alkaloid latex renowned for its hypnotic, sedative, diaphoretic, astringent, and antispasmodic actions (Norn et al., 2005).
Records are found from 3000BC in the Sumerian middle east, but its history probably dates from before this. Legends say Demeter and Persephone found it and shared it with mortals. It was used routinely for coughing and diarrhoea. It is found in 6th century Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) where it is considered sour, astringent, and neutral. Powdered capsules are still used today and is known as Ying Su Ke (Borten, 2023). Some in TCM see this medicine as obsolete due to toxicity and addictiveness. It cannot be prescribed in the US (Alana, 2018). Records show it in 8th century ayurvedic medicine. In 1600 Tobacco and opium began to be popularly smoked together (Norn et al., 2005).
1839 was the first opium war followed by the second in 1856. It started when the Chinese attempted to protect their citizens and ban opium of which the British were exporting 5 million pounds a year at the time. Britain fought for its right to export from its Indian colonies. This was to avoid spending their own money on Chinese imports which included silk and tea. It won by securing docks and claiming Hong Kong. In the Straits Settlements, British territories in east Asia, revenue from opium was as high as 55.6% of total in 1841-42 (Kenji, 2012). The East Indian Trading Company also exported to America (Norn et al., 2005).
In the Philippines in 1814, Spanish colonial government passed a degree prohibiting the use and sale of opium. However, this was soon overturned in the hope of amassing revenue. The Americas then colonized in 1898 and tried to ‘deal’ with the opium problem they had supplied (RAMOS, 2020).
In 1806 Freidrich Serturner isolated morphine from opium and found it to be 10 times more potent (The University of Chicago Medical Center, 2023). Morphine is used to manage severe pain as it acts directly on the central nervous system (Wearn, n.d.). The side effects can be potent with nervous system depression, affecting digestion and dangerously respiration along with nausea, vomiting, extreme dry mouth amongst others (Khansari et al., 2013). By 1910 physicians started to become alarmed at the rise of overdoses (Kay, 2022). Codeine was then derived from opium. In 1898 Bayer produced ill-fated heroine, from the acetylation of morphine which seemed to be more effective than morphine or codeine but apparently without the side effects (S, 2001).
From 1914, morphine ampoules were needed en masse to aid millions of soldiers injured in the First World War. This brought the regulation of opiates which was underway with the The Hague International Opium Convention to a standstill.
M Grieve in 1931 states small doses of opium and morphine are nerve stimulants and tincture of Opium (Laudanum) and soap liniment make an excellent anodyne when used externally and syrup of poppy is useful in cough medicine and as an opiate to be used cautiously with children (1998). In Pakistan today it is a common folk remedy but unfortunately in the very young it can be fatal. Papvarum somniferum powder mixed in water or boiled remedies are used for minor complaints like crying, coughing etc. This can easily depress the central nervous system to a dangerous level in neonates and infants below 1 year who show significantly different pharmacokinetics (Akram et all., 2021).
The golden triangle is now one of the largest suppliers of opium lying on the borders of Myanmar/Burma, Laos and Thailand. Apparently run by drug barons backed by the US CIA since the Vietnam War (Ransom, 1991). The golden crescent comprising of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan and South America are other producers (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, n.d.). Legal opium is mainly produced in Turkey and Australia (Malloch-Brown, 2008).
This led me on to the wider Papaveraceous family, their history and potential use.
Papavarum rhoeas is a symbol of Remembrance Day. The parts used are the flowers and seeds. According to Iverson Papavarum rhoeas was often associated with harm if picked, perhaps to warn people away But also has a history of use in war time as what was considered a mild sedative for women (2019). The flowers long been used as a painkiller as it contains powerful alkaloids like rhoeadine, proaporphine and benzylisoquinoline (Oh et al., 2018). It has been used for mild pain such as earache, toothache, and sore throat. It is a gentle sedative and expectorant used for coughs, catarrh, and digestion (Wearn, n.d.).
Eschscholizia californica originating from America has long been used by Indigenous Americans for its analgesic, anxiolytic and sedative effects (Bone, 2003). Today it is sold in pharmacies in many countries (Fedurco et al., 2015). Studies have shown a formula of Eschscholizia californica (80%) and Cordyalis (20%) an ability to interact with opiate receptors and in two clinical trials help regulate disturbed sleep without any adverse side effects (Romm et al., 2010).
Cordyalis ambigua known as Yan Hu Suo in TCM has been used for centuries to improve blood circulation and help problems associated with statis. Today its analgesic properties are being studied (Alhassen et al., 2021). It is in the top 10 most frequently used herbs in drug addiction in TCM (Zhu et al., 2017). Some Corydalis species are used in folk medicine for memory enhancement in Europe and China (Kilic et al., 2021). In ‘Botanical medicine for women’s health’, the alkaloids tetrahypropalmatine is noted for its hypnotic, sedative, and tranquilizing effects. It proves effective for headaches and pain, especially hormonal, dysmenorrhea and insomnia (Room et al., 2010).
Cordyalis has several in its family which seem interchangeable such as C. gariana used in india, C. Cava in Europe and C. canadensis in North America (Wearn, n.d.) (Plants for our Future, n.d.). It often has several species growing in proximity which apparently makes quality control difficult (Wangchuk et al., 2020).
Unfortunately, this essay is too short to go into the complete history of the family, with Papvarum somniferums being particularly eventful. Its tragic legacy of geopolitics, money making and trailing addiction. Which is now in the hands of the pharmaceutical industry. The David Ransom’s article reports on evidence of several government ties to the drug trade (Ransom, 1991). This seems extra sinister as the ‘war on drugs’ is waged with the US spending $15 billion federally per year (Gallahue, 2013).
While the alkaloids are perhaps not as strong in the other ‘legal’ members of the family, they are still incredible. They can be used for pain relief without the associated drawbacks and ironically for drug withdrawal. Other herbs are also known in the treatment of addiction and it makes me feel herbal medicine needs to be in every part of health care (Zhu et al., 2017).
My understanding is that it is illegal to make and sell Papvarum somniferum products without a licence except from the ripe seed. But while I looked for the exact law which made it so in the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and the Medicine Act 1968, I struggled to find clarity (Parliament). If doctors and pharmacies can utilize it, can an herbalist get a licence to prescribe opium tincture? Unfortunately, while incredibly useful, the side effects of opium and its derivatives are serious. Over the counter opiates such as codeine has addicts and associated deaths (Sobczak and Goryński, 2020). It inspires me to want to learn more about the others in the paparvace family. I feel they would be of such benefit within general medicine along with other herbs. And perhaps we could use the less refined whole Papvarum somniferum as some TCM practitioners do, as an astringent, not as a long-term pain killer. Because by not treating the root cause, one has ill side effects (Alana, 2018). I wanted to look at Papvarum somniferum as its derivatives are used to great effect in crisis and palative care situations. I would like to know if a less refined version of Papvarum somniferum could be used in this way and I am still unsure.
Papvarum somniferum (Anon, n.d.)
Cordyalis ambigua (Wikipedia, 2023)
Papaver rhoeas (Köhler, 1887)
Eschscholzia californica (Step and Watson, 1896)
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